The Modes of Persuasion
In 350 BCE, Aristotle's On Rhetoric identified what he considered to be the three basic components of successful appeal.
Logos: Logos is an appeal based upon logic. The idea is that you are more likely to convince people of your position if it is framed in a reasonable manner. In other words, people are most attracted to those ideas that are clearly explained, logically constructed, and based in facts.
Pathos: Pathos is an appeal based upon emotion. People are more likely to be persuaded if base emotions are appealed to. Keep in mind, that the emotions tapped need not be positive. One can be persuaded by feelings of anger or anxiety, just as easily as feelings of warmth or optimism.
Ethos: Ethos is the appeal based upon the credibility of the speaker. This appeal touches on the element of trust. If one trusts the character, motives, and expertise of the person making the appeal, then he or she is more likely to be persuaded.
Fallacies of Logic
These are arguments containing errors in reason. They are extremely common and often very effective. However, the point here is not for you to use these in your argument, but to be able to point them out in opposing points of view.
AD HOMINEM: The Ad Hominem attack will focus on the person, not the argument.
Example: You can't take health advice from her, all she eats is junk food!
RED HERRING: A Red Herring is the introduction of an irrelevant subject, usually introduced in an attempt to drive the argument away (or distract) from its original subject.
Example: Why are we debating a soda tax when it's really Starbucks we need to reign in?
BURDEN OF PROOF: This is the tactic of shifting the Burden of Proof onto the wrong party. One party clearly has the responsibility to prove or dispove something, but instead shifts that responsibility to the opposing party.
Example: Of course, America has the best restaurants in the world. Prove to me they don't.
GOLDEN MEAN: The Golden Mean fallacy assumes that given two opposing viewpoints, the correct solution is invariably the middle or "golden mean." This fallacy is based upon the common belief that neither of two diametrically opposed viewpoints can possibly be correct.
Example: This recipe says to use four cups of flour, while another says to use six. I’ll play it safe and use five cups instead.
SLIPPERY SLOPE: The Slippery Slope fallacy is based on the idea that once you take the first step down a path, you will be inexorably drawn down that path until you reach an inevitable and very bad end. In other words, if “X” is allowed to happen, then “Y” is sure to be the end result.
Example: Calorie counts on restaurant menus will only lead to government mandates telling us what and what not to eat.
STRAW MAN: A Straw Man is a misrepresentation of the opposing view, setup in such a way that it is easy to demolish. At worst, it is a complete fabrication which bears no resemblance whatsoever to the original argument.
Example: Vegetarians and vegans make such a big fuss about eating meat because, at the end of the day, all they want is the destruction of capitalism.
LOADED QUESTION: A Loaded Question presupposes something that has not been proven or accepted by all involved. It is posed in such a way that a person, no matter what answer he/she responds with, will inevitably commit him/herself to some presupposed claim.
Example: Are you still a food snob?
BANDWAGON: The Bandwagon is a fallacy in which a threat of rejection by one's peers (or peer pressure) is substituted for evidence in an argument.
Examples: Americans need to join the rest of the industrialized world and eat smaller portions of food at meals. If they can do it, then why can't we?
GUILT BY ASSOCIATION: Guilt by Association draws its power from the fact that people do not like to be associated with people they dislike. If it is shown that a person shares a belief with people he or she dislikes, then one might be influenced into rejecting that belief.
Examples: It's interesting that you enjoy the food at McDonald's. I don't; my food tastes have evolved.
Watch the following ads and look for examples of the modes of persuasion. What are you trying to be persuaded into? Are fallacies of logic used? If so, how?
